South America is blessed with some of the largest rivers and lakes in the world. They define the continent’s physical geography, economy, and ecology. 🌎 4.1 Major River Systems 1. Amazon River 🌍 2. Orinoco River 3. Paraná River 4. Paraguay River 5. Uruguay River 6. São Francisco River (Brazil only) 🌎 4.2 Major River…
South America’s physical structure is dominated by three major regions: This chapter focuses on the mountains & plateaus. 🌎 3.1 Andes Mountains – The Backbone of South America 🔹 Divisions of Andes 🔹 Important Peaks of the Andes Peak Country Height (m) Significance Aconcagua Argentina 6,961 Highest in South America Huascarán Peru 6,768 Highest peak…
South America is divided into 12 sovereign nations and a few territories. Despite shared colonial histories, each country has developed unique political, cultural, and economic systems. 🌍 2.1 Countries & Capitals Country Capital Political Note Argentina Buenos Aires Major agricultural exporter, Pampas grasslands Bolivia Sucre (constitutional), La Paz (administrative) Landlocked, rich in lithium Brazil Brasília…
South America is a continent of extremes and contrasts – home to the world’s largest river by volume (Amazon), the longest mountain chain (Andes), and the largest rainforest (Amazonia). Politically, it consists of 12 independent countries, each with distinct cultures and histories, yet bound together by their shared colonial past. Physically, the continent is shaped…
🇮🇳 India at Independence (15 August 1947) At independence, India was a mixture of: 🧩 Initial Classification of States (1950 Constitution) When the Constitution came into effect on 26 January 1950, Indian territory was classified into 4 types of states: 🟥 Part A States (9) 🟦 Part B States (9) 🟩 Part C States (10)…
The Lithosphere shapes our world through powerful internal and external forces. From Earth’s layered structure and drifting continents to the rise of mountains and formation of soil, dynamic processes like earthquakes, volcanoes, rivers, winds, glaciers, and waves continually reshape the land — creating diverse landforms and revealing the planet’s restless geological heartbeat.
From 1915 to 1947, Gandhi led India’s freedom struggle through non-violent mass movements like Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, and Quit India. Starting with local Satyagrahas, he mobilized peasants, workers, and women. Despite his efforts for unity, communal tensions rose, leading to India’s independence and partition in 1947—a moment of triumph shadowed by tragedy.
India’s land revenue system evolved from tribal tribute and cattle wealth in the Vedic era to state-controlled taxes under the Mauryas. Feudal land grants like Brahmadeya emerged in the Gupta period, followed by the Iqta system in the Delhi Sultanate. The Mughals introduced Jagirdari, later replaced by exploitative British systems—Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari.
Modern Indian History begins in 1707 with the death of Aurangzeb, marking the decline of the Mughal Empire and rise of European trading powers. It culminates in 1947 with India’s independence from British colonial rule, covering a transformative 240-year period of political, economic, and social upheaval.
🧭 1. Historical Background 🔹 1857: First War of Independence 🔹 1860: Indian Penal Code (IPC) enacted 🧨 2. Insertion of Section 124A – Sedition 🔹 Year: 1870 🔹 Drafted by: James Fitzjames Stephen🔹 Purpose:To curb growing nationalist sentiments and press criticism after 1857 revolt and especially after the rise of Indian newspapers and political…
