🏛️ Chapter 2: Political Geography of South America

South America is divided into 12 sovereign nations and a few territories. Despite shared colonial histories, each country has developed unique political, cultural, and economic systems.

---

🌍 2.1 Countries & Capitals

Country	Capital	Political Note
Argentina	Buenos Aires	Major agricultural exporter, Pampas grasslands
Bolivia	Sucre (constitutional), La Paz (administrative)	Landlocked, rich in lithium
Brazil	Brasília	Largest country, Portuguese-speaking
Chile	Santiago	Stable democracy, copper-rich
Colombia	Bogotá	Coffee, emeralds, long internal conflict (FARC)
Ecuador	Quito	Galápagos Islands, petroleum
Guyana	Georgetown	English-speaking, oil discoveries
Paraguay	Asunción	Landlocked, Itaipu Dam with Brazil
Peru	Lima	Inca heritage, Machu Picchu
Suriname	Paramaribo	Smallest country, Dutch-speaking
Uruguay	Montevideo	Progressive policies, Rio de la Plata
Venezuela	Caracas	Oil-rich, political instability

Territories:

• French Guiana (France): Cayenne → European Space Agency’s spaceport at Kourou.
• Falkland Islands (UK): Stanley → disputed by Argentina, 1982 Falklands War.
• South Georgia & South Sandwich Islands (UK): Remote, sub-Antarctic, penguin habitats.

---

🌎 2.2 Boundaries & Neighbors

• Brazil: Borders every South American country except Chile & Ecuador.
• Landlocked Nations: Bolivia & Paraguay.
• Longest Border: Between Brazil & Bolivia (~3,400 km).
• Smallest Border: Between Brazil & Suriname (~593 km).

---

👥 2.3 Demographics

• Population: ~440 million.
• Largest population: Brazil (~215 million).
• Smallest population: Suriname (~0.6 million).
• Urbanization: High (Buenos Aires, São Paulo, Rio, Santiago, Lima).
• Ethnic Groups:
  • Mestizo (mixed European–Indigenous) → common in Andean nations.
  • European descent → Argentina, Uruguay, Chile.
  • African descent → Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela.
  • Indigenous → Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador.

---

🤝 2.4 Political Groupings

1. MERCOSUR (Southern Common Market):
   • Members: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela (suspended).
   • Purpose: Trade liberalization, customs union.
   • HQ: Montevideo, Uruguay.
2. UNASUR (Union of South American Nations):
   • Political & economic union (though weakened in recent years).
3. Andean Community:
   • Members: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru.
   • Regional trade bloc.
4. OPEC Membership:
   • Venezuela → founding member, oil-rich.
5. BRICS:
   • Brazil is a key member (with Russia, India, China, South Africa).

---

🌐 2.5 Strategic Regions

• Falkland Islands: Dispute between Argentina & UK.
• Amazon Rainforest: Shared by 9 countries; key for climate diplomacy.
• Lithium Triangle (Argentina–Bolivia–Chile): 60% of world’s lithium reserves → vital for EV batteries.
• Panama Connection: Though not part of South America, Isthmus of Panama links it to Central & North America.

---

📌 UPSC Notes (Key Pointers)

1. Brazil borders 10 countries – all except Chile & Ecuador.
2. Landlocked nations: Bolivia, Paraguay.
3. French Guiana = EU territory in South America → ESA spaceport.
4. Disputed Territory: Falkland Islands (Argentina–UK war, 1982).
5. Political blocs: MERCOSUR, Andean Community, UNASUR.
6. Lithium triangle = Argentina, Bolivia, Chile.
7. Largest urban centers: São Paulo, Buenos Aires, Rio, Lima, Bogotá.